This information casts doubt on Nischer’s reasoning. Articles primarily on the archaeology of Roman Britain are published duc.”47 Mommsen expanded “duc. Cf. The Journal of Roman Studies Request Permissions. Furthermore, the execution of such measures would have required a longer period of time than the reign of Diocletian.81, Nischer’s first argument must be called into question because the passage from Aurelius Victor is by no means clear in its meaning. Manned by limitanei, these constituted his first line of defense in the east. All regiments bearing the titles Diocletiana, Maximiana, Iovia, Jones affirms that there “were still a few proconsuls and legates, . Diocletian saw his work as that of a restorer, a figure of authority whose duty it was to return the empire to peace, to recreate stability and justice where barbarian hordes had destroyed it. The infantry that formed the bulk of the expeditionary forces was raised in the method described above. While he decreased the size of the districts, he increased the amount of officials. One of the most important achievements of Diocletian was the “tetrarchy” – ruling of four. We can even say that some other changes were either direct or indirect results of this one. study of the history, archaeology, literature and art of Italy and the Roman were governed by equestrian praesides.”64 Although the empire was divided into four administrative sections under the tetrarchy, the continual division of provinces and the formation of new provinces undoubtedly represented a great strain on the administrative machinery of the imperial government. ], and the man’s title may have been simply v. p. ducenarius, a title which is found in another inscription of a little later date (CIL, III, 1805).”50 Of course, there is no good reason to expect a dux limitis to have served at Verona. The reforms of Diocletian proved successful in giving new life to an ailing empire. Diocletian realized that his vast empire was too large and complex to be ruled by a single man. . The mobile field army was a vital and important component in Diocletian’s comprehensive strategy for the defense of his empire. However, the nature of that reform is not indicated by the historian. On the basis, then, of numerous literary and epigraphical evidences, it must be concluded that the mobile field army was the creation of Diocletian, gradually formed to meet the military necessities of the empire. As Parker asserts, the existence in Constantine’s field army of at least seventeen legions during the tetrarchy cannot be lightly dismissed as an “exception.” Nischer’s disregard of such weighty evidence calls his entire methodology into question. Sextus Aurelius Victor, 39.33—37. duc.”; as he explains, “the stone-cutter may have repeated these letters by mistake [i.e., duc. the contents of the five preceding volumes. According to Parker, the creation of the mobile cavalry unit of the field army, detached from service to a particular legion, was not the accomplishment of Constantine.110 As I have shown in a longer version of this paper, the formation of independent cavalry units must be attributed to Gallienus, and the separation of the legionary cavalry from their legions, with the reception of the new name promoti, to Aurelian. Perhaps it may be concluded that some kind of a military reform was initiated by Constantine. The Acta Sergi et Bacchi in the Analecta Ballandiana indicate that two senior members of the Scholae Gentilium were martyred during the persecution of Galerius.99 Lactantius speaks of the rapidity with which Maximinus was promoted through the ranks to the office of Caesar, having once served as a scutarius or a member of the Scholae Scutariorum.100 It may then be postulated that at least two units of scholae, the Scholae Gentilium, recruited from barbarians and the Scholae Scutariorum, were raised among the Romans.101, The inclusion of other privileged units among the crack troops of the comitatus is very possible. As Parker writes, “The division of the old provinces into smaller units, which further weakened the power of their governors, was carried out in gradual stages and the completed scheme is reproduced in the provincial list of Verona.”58, Some may have held that the sole motive of the provincial reforms was to continue the reduction of the power of the governors and, by so doing, decrease the likelihood of civil strife. The initial existence of the office in the time of his reign is certain. In it, nine praepositi are said to be in command of the troops. Parker, “The Legions of Diocletian and Constantine,” 184. Based on the known dates of creation for provinces appearing in the list, Jones dates the document several years after the abdication of Diocletian, writing, it “cannot be earlier than 312, the earliest possible date for the creation of Aegyptus Herculia, nor later than 320, the latest possible date for the amalgamation of Numidia Cirtensis and Militiana.”69. . Thus the barbarians could not effect passage anywhere as forces would encounter them and repel invasions.113. This persona was often called Princeps or leading citizen, as well as Imperator or victorious general. Items do not represent the official views of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints or of Book of Mormon Central. . The existence of this body is attested by both literary and epigraphic sources. It may or may not have been associated with the field army. The epitaph of a praetorian guard evidences the presence of detachments of this unit with the comitatus of Maximian.107, The legion XI Claudia, as indicated by another inscription, was stationed at Aquilea, which may have represented a reserve base at which the vexillationes used in the field army could await the next campaign without rejoining their parent legion.108 Because a number of the units of Diocletian’s field army remained in Egypt rather than returning to their parent legion, and because the XI Claudia vexillatio likewise did not rejoin its legion, it may be questioned whether other units also remained detached from their parent legion and continued as permanent mobile independent units.109, Cavalry was an important and integral part of the field army. an extensive programme of publication In the appointment of governors, Diocletian continued Gallienus’s policy of assigning provinces to equestrian governors, to such an extent that under his rule senatorial governors were almost eliminated. At times units from sister provinces were organized in the same fashion. All rights reserved. If Diocletian reformed the way the empire was governed then he did not stop there. Each commanded vexillationes from a pair of legions, probably sister legions assigned to the same province.103 Thus the only real change in the policy of Constantine from that of Diocletian is “the permanent concentration by Constantine of those vexillationes in an army separate from the frontier-army and their subdivision into two sections which differed from each other only in rank and distinction.”104. Diocletian established a form of government known as the tetrarchy. In a question where no clear and definite evidence is available, Jones offers a sound analysis that, The legion of the principate numbered about 6,000, and there is good reason for believing that the new legions which Diocletian raised were of the same strength. The organization of the tetrarchy, the refortification of the limites, the augmentation of the army’s size, the reformation of the system of military command, the reorganization of the provinces, and the inauguration of a permanent mobile field army constituted a comprehensive program of reform advanced by Diocletian. in the Society's sister journal, Britannia. The increase in troop numbers along the Danube enabled Diocletian to draw from the frontier legions without jeopardizing the safety of any one section of the frontier by depleting legionary garrisons below a safe level. Religious Groups and Movements among the Nephites, 200–1 B.C. Indeed, because of the presence of fortification works and other structures in front of the fossatum, it must be concluded that in this system the rampart constituted not the first defensive position, but rather a last line of defense.20, Diocletian’s treatment of the Danubian defenses was much like that of the Rhine limes. The Society supports: By this check upon the monopoly of power in the hands of his chief ministers, Diocletian sought to protect himself from a repetition of the military pronunciamentos [declaration of troops to elevate general to imperial rank], which in the past had so vitally sapped the strength of the Empire.67, The vicar not only served as a check on the prefects but also as a restraining force on provincial governors.68, The provincial and diocese divisions of the empire are given in the “Verona List.” Jones’s research and observations on the value of the list demonstrate its accuracy. Of course, the introduction of the taxation system capitatio–iugatio was a result of the need to increase income for growing expenses, from which the biggest one was the army. Seston expresses a similar view.86, The field army of Diocletian consisted of a nucleus of permanent troops, augmented in times of emergency by vexillationes from the provinces. The frontier was to be reconstructed on a greater scale by Diocletian, even if the frontier would not constitute the cardinal principle of Diocletian’s defensive strategy. As the smaller frontier provinces were created out of the old larger administrative units, each was given its own garrison troops. Of the troops comprising the army that Diocletian led into Egypt, it appears that the detachments drawn from the two legions of a province acted in unison and were under the command of the same officer. schools, by the award of grants to help the teaching of all aspects of the Roman world Gradually the mask wore off. duc. The Society, founded in 1910, is the leading organisation in the United An inscription from Noricum mentions a cavalry unit that had been part of the comitatus, but on completion of its term of service had returned to its station on the frontier.112. The contents list and abstracts Jones explains their function as that of an imperial honor guard, which status “seems to have been invented by Gallienus, who bestowed it on high-ranking officers, prefects of legions and praetorian tribunes.”95 Jones further asserts that “by Diocletian’s time there was certainly a corps of protectores which accompanied the emperor.” It is very possible that these are the same troops that are less formally called domestici and who Diocletian himself commanded before his accession.96 This detachment is mentioned in an Oxyrhynchus papyrus as being present with Diocletian on his Egyptian expedition.97 An inscription from the tombstone of a quartermaster of this unit, dating to Diocletian’s reign and found at his official residence at Nicomedia, shows that the protectores did not constitute an official unit; since they were stationed at the emperor’s residence, they were likely members of the comitatus.98, The imperial bodyguard proper was called the scholae. He established a Frankish buffer state on the far bank of the Rhine and constructed a line of forts in advance of the Rhine from Mayence to the sources of the Danube.14 In 294 Constantius extensively augmented the Rhine fortifications to provide increased security for Gaul so that he might undertake the invasion of Britain without fear of barbarian incursions. Military Reforms Diocletian immediately set to work re-drawing the borders of the empire's provinces and organizing the provinces into new administrative units. In his policies, he enforced an Imperial system of values on diverse and often unreceptive provincial audiences. Items in the BMC Archive are made publicly available for non-commercial, private use. a programme of public lectures in London Thanks. Political Reforms Diocletian replaced the old administrative system with a new one that he believed to be better. The number of men in the army increased from 390,000 to 580,000, while the number of men in the navy increased from 45,000 to 65,000. It is surely then not improbable that Diocletian adhered to what had become a recognised principle. The greatly extended defenses needed to be properly garrisoned, thus necessitating a tremendous troop increase, which in turn was administratively effected through a complete provincial reform. Seston goes so far as to question the reality of any sort of reform on the part of Constantine.82. . An inscription found at Verona, dating to the year 265, records that a certain construction project was undertaken at the direction of one “Aur. There are many similarities between them, not the least being the range of … Papers are intended to make a fresh and significant Two new commanders directed this mobile field army, they were the ‘Magister Equitum’ and ‘Magister Militum’. This insight about the limits of top-down control may have been forward-thinking, but his solution shows how deeply important the elit… Military Reforms Diocletian immediately set to work re-drawing the borders of the empire's provinces and organizing the provinces into new administrative units. The existence of this unit in the comitatus of Diocletian is clearly attested by certain literary sources. duc.” into “duce ducenario.”48 If his interpretation is correct, the office of dux must have existed, at least in some form, before Diocletian. It must, however, be remembered that even though these other reforms came as a result of the original reform, together they gradually and simultaneously developed and were dependent on each other. During the reign of Constantine, the promoti were designated by the unit title of vexillatio, which at this time began to refer only to units of cavalry and was no longer applied to infantry. a library of around 100,000 volumes and 540 current periodicals, maintained jointly with the Hellenic Society and in conjunction . Compounded by an ever-deteriorating internal state of affairs, the result of frequent civil conflict, Roman military efficiency declined so appreciably that the once impregnable fortified frontier, the limites, were frequently pierced, exposing the interior of the empire to attack and plunder. Have the students meet in their groups and come up with a list of reasons their change is most important. 'the In this, the Empire was organised into four parts, each ruled by a co-emperor. See ibid., 163. It is Constantine alone whom they consider worthy to be credited with the innovation of the field army.80, Nischer attempts to refute the existence of a Diocletianic field army through three arguments. Diocletian's reforms made the Roman empire more tightly administered and more homogeneous than before. Diocletian was first and foremost a soldier, but he made reforms not only in Roman military, but also in its financial system, administration, religion, architecture and changed rules of ruling the Empire. of the field which the Roman Society was established to promote, i.e. Throughout the course of the third century A.D., the Roman Empire was subjected to repeated attack, both by Germanic tribes and by the armies of a resurgent Persia under the militaristic Sassanid dynasty. This created double the amount of legions, but they were significantly smaller. When he drafted soldiers to fight, he did not draft a certain number of men but rather a number of legions. . See Parker, “The Legions of Diocletian and Constantine,” 185. The evidence that cavalry was used in both the comitatus as well as on the frontier is strong. Because small legionary vexillationes drawn from the frontier legions were used in the composition of the field army, Parker is able to explain that “the increase in the number of frontier-legions . We can even say that some other changes were either direct or indirect results of this one. View Academics in Diocletian Military Reforms on Academia.edu. contribution to the understanding of the Roman world and to stimulate further Diocletian - Diocletian - Domestic reforms: Perhaps more important for the maintenance of the empire was Diocletian’s program of domestic reform. During the course of Diocletian’s reign, this system was strengthened and modified in such a way that it came to resemble the Syrian limes. The central component of Diocletian’s offensive strategy was a permanent field army. Parker, “The Legions of Diocletian and Constantine,” 183. Get the latest updates on Book of Mormon topics and research for free. Their role was strictly one of support, except in times of conflict when it was their responsibility to engage and destroy the enemy. Diocletian and his Reforms after the Crisis of the Third Century With over 1.7 million square miles of land, the Roman Empire reigned for over a thousand years. The extensive military reforms and accompanying frontier reorganization accomplished by Diocletian originated from a desire to maintain a strong and internally secure empire through a defensive system that would be effective against external aggression. Diocletian was the first to call himself Jones asserts that “In the system of command Diocletian introduced one innovation, establishing in certain frontier areas zone commanders (duces) distinct from the provincial governors, who retained civil functions only. Richard Lloyd Anderson was a member of the committee that accepted the thesis for “university scholar” designation. Regarding this account, Norman H. Baynes explains that “there is no undoubted reference to the later provincial military commander—the dux—until the year 289.”44 The existence of the dux is further attested by several inscriptions dating to the period of the tetrarchy.45, Nevertheless, the question may be raised whether the dux originated before the time of Diocletian. They, like the old legions, later contributed detachments to the comitatus, and in those areas, the Danubian provinces and Egypt, where the frontier legions were later broken up into a number of detachments, the Diocletianic legions were divided in the same way as were the older legions.31. This suggests that at least a secondary motive for the change may have been the creation of a more effective system of frontier defence. Two such elite corps are the Ioviani and the Herculiani. Byzantine Empire - Byzantine Empire - The reforms of Diocletian and Constantine: The definition of consistent policy in imperial affairs was the achievement of two great soldier-emperors, Diocletian (ruled 284–305) and Constantine I (sole emperor 324–337), who together ended a century of anarchy and refounded the Roman state. This no doubt will not have been a coincidence. We build enduring faith in Jesus Christ by making the Book of Mormon accessible, comprehensible, and defensible to the entire world. He was present at the conquest of the Rhaetian limes in 288, at the reoccupation of the “ripa samarticae [north bank of the Danube occupied by Samartic barbarians]” on the far bank of the Danube in 294. Denis Van Berchem describes the fossatum as four to ten meters high with an earthen rampart topped by a wooden wall.19 It was not large enough to serve the same defensive purpose as the great walls of Europe and was far too extensive to be completely garrisoned. The Empire was divided into twelve dioceses.”65 Provinces were grouped together to form the various dioceses, “each of which was directed by a deputy of the praetorian prefects, vices agens praefectorum praetorio, or vicarius for short.”66 The establishment of the system of vicars weakened the praetorian prefects, whose representatives they were, and appeals from their decisions were heard not by the prefects, but by the Emperor himself. These cavalry units were organized in independent tactical units called vexillationes, each vexillatio most likely being composed of five hundred men.36 It was their function to provide accessible routes of communication from their garrisons strategically positioned behind the frontier and to check any incursions from across the frontier. A number of inscriptions provide us with this information. Furthermore, he established peace with Sassanid Persia which would last 40 years. A short summary of this paper. Constantine the Great would keep and reintroduce many of his tactics and reforms, creating a strong empire with a highly organized rulership. . A select military guard, the lanciarii, also held a place in the comitatus. archaeology, through grants for excavations and by organising a biennial conference Read your article online and download the PDF from your email or your account. Like so many other innovations of Diocletian, the field army was probably formed in response to a particular military necessity occasioned by a particular problem situation. He assumes that all legions of Flavian Constantinian nomenclature were originated by Constantius rather than Constantine, and that a number of other obscure legions also functioned under Diocletian. By the time of Diocletian’s accession as emperor, four great problems had arisen in the military sphere: (1) deteriorating discipline within an army committed to self-aggrandizement, (2) deficient military capability of politically appointed commanders, (3) inadequate tactical mobility of army units, and (4) divestment of the limites to provide contingents for emergency field armies. Diocletian, … It has a broadly based membership, drawn from over forty The administrative organization of the regular troops, cavalry, and infantry, under the command of the duces corresponded in part to the new provincial organization. He was not a complete innovator in this area, for his predecessors had made some tentative attempts in the same direction; the emperor Gallienus had excluded senators from the army and separated military from civil careers. This is illustrated in the Oxyrhynchus Papyrus account of Diocletian’s Egyptian expedition. The improved and expanded frontier defense system occasioned the introduction of other reforms. These changes occurred in response to definite and specific threats to the security of the empire and were implemented gradually in response to individual situations and events. The man who would become known as Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus Augustus was born in present-day Croatia in the year 244. Baynes believes Nischer’s system of divisional reserves to be “unsupported”75 and Parker, after examining the origin and positioning of each legion mentioned by Nischer, concludes that his theory is “arbitrary and unsatisfactory.”76 He continues and summarizes his position in support of the Diocletianic provincial defense system as follows: Now since the time of Septimius Severus it had been the practice to assign not more than two legions to each frontier province, and, although in some provinces one legion was sometimes deemed sufficient, the upper limit was not exceeded. The first literary mention of Diocletian’s new military commanders occurs in the early part of his reign when the author of the second panegyric refers to those occupying the new office of dux as preserving the glory of Diocletian. The towns behind the line were occupied by cavalry and legionaries who served as the second and third lines of defense, protecting strategic roads and areas.18, The African defense system, prior to the rule of Diocletian, had consisted of a series of castella (fortified guard posts), which served as desert watch stations, and of a structure called the fossatum (ditch and earthen ramparts). . Lactantius characterizes him as possessed with a compulsion for constant construction: “to this there was added a certain limitless desire of building, and for supplying all the workers, craftsmen, carts, and whatever was necessary for constructing the works.”11, William Seston cites Theodor Mommsen’s observation that Diocletian personally supervised the reoccupation of several sections of the Danubian limes (frontier fortification) that had been lost to the barbarian tribes. The basic principle of Roman military strategy since the time of Augustus, the defense of the frontiers, was retained. His second argument is that the troops that comprised the field army of Constantine are listed in the Notitia Dignitatum under titles unknown to the pre-Constantinian army. The extensive military reforms and accompanying frontier reorganization accomplished by Diocletian originated from a desire to maintain a strong and internally secure empire through a defensive system that would be effective against external aggression. How did Diocletian’s military reforms affect the Roman Empire? First, he took each legion and divided them in half. H. M. D. Parker asserts that “on his accession [Diocletian] found some forty legions in existence and, although certainty is not attainable, it seems probable that he raised their total to about sixty.”23 Seston generally agrees that during the twenty-five years between 280 and 305 the number of legions throughout the empire rose from 39 to 59 or 60.24 A. H. M. Jones adds a further corroboration of this remarkable troop increase: “The evidence suggests that the army was approximately doubled between the Severan period and the reign of Diocletian, and that the greater part of the increase was due to Diocletian himself.”25 The increase was gradually realized through the application of the provincial administrative reform: These new units were not raised simultaneously, but at intervals, to meet the requirements of the new provincial organization, which Diocletian gradually established throughout the Empire. with the University of London's Institute of Classical Studies. Through its creation he provided the foundation for the enlarged and expanded field army whose existence during the time of Constantine is revealed in the document Notitia Dignitatum. The basic principle of Roman military strategy since the time of Augustus, the defense of the frontiers, was retained. This is the basis on which Seeck tries to build his account of Diocletian's army reforms. Check out using a credit card or bank account with. Group Three will be Team Dividing the Empire. Baynes attempts to account for the use of the term dux by citing Homo’s argument that Aurelius Marcellinus was not a dux assigned to the command of the troops of a province, but simply a director of a particular project.49 Clinton W. Keyes, on the other hand, disagrees with Mommsen’s rendering of “duc. . He never increased the men per legion. Access supplemental materials and multimedia. He constructed a second line of fortifications on the other bank of the Rhine, behind the first, so that a double line of fortification existed between Basel and Constance.15, Whereas the defense of the Rhine was essentially a process of refortification along a natural boundary, the fortification of the Syrian limes resulted in the original development of the threefold, in-depth defense system described above, which was later adapted to other frontiers. . . The fortifications along the limites required extensive reconstruction. He accomplished this through a series of reforms aimed at undoing However, in order to administer the greatly increased number of troops, the organization of the structure was so transformed that it may be considered a new system. He first came to power as many emperors did, with an army under his command proclaiming him as such, and ultimately defeating other military rivals. A.they ended civil unrest in the empire. Diocletian was emperor of Rome from 284 to 312 CE, and during that time is remembered for saving the crumbling empire from total collapse. The Senate had progressively been deprived of its privileges. Empire, from the earliest times down to about A.D. 700'. Subscription rates are available at http://www.romansociety.org/frame.htm, This item is part of a JSTOR Collection. In 289 and again in 300 he traveled to Antioch for the reconstruction of the Syrian limes.12 Diocletian’s involvement in this process was clearly more extensive than that of any of his predecessors.13, The empire featured five primary defensive areas: the African, Syrian, Danubian, Rhine, and the British limes. option. Gkoutzioukostas, The reforms of Constantine the Great in provinicial administration: A critical approach to the conclusions of modern research. This, of course, provided for the assignation of a greatly increased number of legions. Bury concludes that the manpower was recruited from four sources: the sons of soldiers, serfs, barbarian settlers, and adventurers.27 Seston believes that recruiting was accomplished through the application of a quota system to the regions of the empire in much the same way that taxes were collected.28, E. C. Nischer has proposed the theory that the legions raised by Diocletian were composed of a greatly reduced complement of only one thousand men. The concept of frontier defense had for four hundred years been a basic and essential part of the Roman military system.1 The purpose of Diocletian’s frontier reform was twofold: first, to inspire enemies outside the empire with the fear of defeat;2 second, “to create a more effective system of frontier defence by a more detailed distribution of the available garrison troops.”3 In an effort to satisfy these designs, basic reforms of fortification and troop placement were instituted, but additional reforms were necessary for the maintenance of those basic reforms.4. First and foremost of the changes was that consription for Roman citizens was reintroduced. The term ripenses (riparienses) derives from the Latin ripa and, as its name denotes, relates to the defense of a riverbank37 and was used in reference to certain troops in the Danube area as early as the reign of Aurelian.38 Indeed, it was in that area, the boundary of which is the Rhine and the Danube, that these troops were most commonly located.39, The command of the provincial garrisons had been exercised throughout the history of the empire by the provincial governor. A “Rhine reserve” is supposed to have been organized, composed of the legions I Flavia Constantiniana, II Flavia Constantiniana; a “West Danube reserve” of the legions III Herculia and IV Iovia; an “East Danube reserve” of the I and II Flavia Gemina; a “Pontus reserve” of the I and II Armeniaca; an “Eastern reserve” of the V and VI Parthica; an “Egyptian reserve” of the I Maximiana, II Flavia Constantia, and III Diocletiana; an “African reserve” of the I Flavia Pacis, II Flavia Virtutis, and III Flavia Salutis; a “Julian Alps Main reserve” of the legions I, II, and III Iulia Alpima; and an “Isaurian Main reserve” of the legions I, II, and III Isauria.74.
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